In a footnote containing only a citation, use the parenthetical citation style, but omit the opening and closing parentheses and change the internal brackets to parentheses. Place the case name in running text and the volume—report—page or other bibliographic information in the footnote and eliminate the parentheses enclosing the citation. The situation in Rogers v Rogers 1 mirrors the situation in this decision.
Place the footnote number at the point where the parenthetical citation would appear if the parenthetical citation were placed in the body of the opinion. When using the citational footnote style, citations that appear within textual footnotes should not be placed within parentheses. County Court denied defendant's motion; 16 the Appellate Division reversed, vacated the judgment, restored the indictment to the preplea stage and reinstated the prosecution's notice of intent to seek the death penalty.
To reference previously cited authority use a short-form reference or " id. Subsequent references to a case in running text or within parentheses may use a shortened case name. Murphy , 6 NY3d 36 [Note: shortened case name with citation to initial page of decision]. Subsequent references to periodicals, treatises and similar works may be shortened by omitting the author's name or the title, in whole or in part, as follows:.
David H. When a subsequent reference is made to an immediately preceding authority, " id. Capitalize " Id. Where parallel citations are provided in the first reference, subsequent references that include a pinpoint page should supply the pinpoint page for each parallel citation.
Citations may be introduced by signals that indicate the purpose for which the citations are made and their degree of support or contradiction concerning a proposition. Cite an electronic source if it is the sole source of material referenced or if the print version is not readily available. Electronic services e. Internet material is cited as indicated in section 2.
Slip opinions scheduled for publication in the print Official Reports are cited as indicated in section 2. Trial court and Appellate Term opinions published online only with or without abstracts published in the print Official Reports are cited as indicated in section 2. Appellate motion decisions published online but not in the print Official Reports are cited as indicated in section 2. If a case has not been officially reported, formulate a case name using the citation naming conventions found in standard citation manuals and apply the abbreviations listed in Appendix 1.
For any other case, use the case name found in standard citation services or formulate a name by applying citation naming conventions found in standard citation manuals. Where the pinpoint page is the same as the initial page or where the decision comprises one page, repeat the initial page for a pinpoint citation as follows:. Citation to the sole footnote in a decision is designated by a lowercase "n" as follows:.
Where a case contains more than one footnote, the citation should indicate the number of the footnote being cited as follows:. City of New York v Cont. In citing a single quotation that runs over two or more pages, give the pages at which it begins and ends, separated by a hyphen, rather than a comma:. Flores v Lower E. Garden Homes Woodlands Co. Although including the precise date of decision and judge is not required, that information may be supplied in brackets, following the citation.
Ponce v St. Opinions scheduled for publication in the Official Reports are cited as follows:. Franklin Corp. Parallel unofficial citations are not used for officially reported New York State cases. A number of opinions not selected for full publication in the Miscellaneous Reports are published in abstract form in the printed Miscellaneous 3d Reports and in full text in the Slip Opinion Service and online Official Reports.
Unreported slip opinions not abstracted in the Miscellaneous Reports are cited as follows:. Most Appellate Division and Appellate Term motion decisions are not published in print. They are cited as follows:. Cite unreported cases not published in the New York Slip Opinion Service in the following manner, including any information that would be useful in identifying the case:. Keenan v Dayton Beach Park No. Where a case is not officially reported or published as an unreported case in the New York Slip Opinion Service, but appears in the New York Law Journal, cite as follows:.
Where the choice lies between an unofficial report that is current and a discontinued unofficial report, the current report should be cited:. When the citation to the United States Reports is unavailable, supply a blank citation to the United States Reports with a parallel citation to an unofficial report as follows:. Out-of-state cases are cited to the state official reports where available, followed by the parallel National Reporter System citation:. Where an out-of-state case is cited only to the National Reporter System because no official citation is available, the name of the jurisdiction should be added in abbreviated form in brackets:.
When citing reports known by name of the reporter, except New York and English reports, the jurisdiction should be added in abbreviated form in brackets after the name of the reporter:. When a public domain citation is provided, supply a parallel citation to a published source:. Alberte v Anew Health Care Servs. If the only source is a website, supply additional information using section 2.
Citation to a case contained in an electronic service e. If the source is Westlaw or Lexis, and access to both is available, cite both services:. Beasley v Hub City Texas, L.
Fulton Bank, N. Citation for tabular cases where the full text is published only on Westlaw and Lexis:.
Regal v General Motors Corp. Citation to decisions posted on the Internet is permitted where the material is not readily available in print. The name of the author may be added if desired:. Applications of a Child with a Disability [Board of Educ.
Gilbow v Travis , Ark App [Apr. Some suggested forms of commission and agency document citations in running text are as follows:. Matter of Freeport Union Free Sch. AmBase Corp. Employer: NYC Tr. Matter of Monroe County Civ. The statute name abbreviations listed in Appendix 4 should be used for statutory citations within parentheses. Use the statute's terminology when specifying its divisions.
A short-form reference may be used for subsequent citations to the same statute. Defendant moved pursuant to CPL References to parts, subdivisions, paragraphs, subparagraphs, clauses, etc. Some suggested forms of citation of parallel hierarchy in running text are as follows:.
References to divisions of sections of statutes cited in ascending hierarchy divisions followed by more inclusive divisions of the section should appear within parentheses as follows:. Some suggested forms of ascending hierarchy citations in running text are as follows:.
In citations of multiple sections of a statute, place two section symbols before the first section cited. The form is:. Where the form of statutory citation omits the section symbol e. When citations omitting the section symbol appear in running text, the form is:. Commercial statutory compilations often provide commentaries, statutory histories, reviser's notes, etc.
Richard A. William C. Brett S. Bruce A. Patrick M. New York session laws may be cited when referring to a statutory enactment not contained in the consolidated laws or to indicate the addition, amendment, renumbering or repeal of a consolidated law or division thereof.
Laws of ch 21, as amended or chapter 21 of the Laws of as amended. Cite the United States Code if therein. The general rules of parenthetical and running text citation should be observed when referring to out-of-state statutes. When cited in running text, interior brackets are changed to parentheses as follows:. To incorporate the name of a specific agency in the citation, see section 4. Either abbreviations or the full names may be used in running text.
Interior brackets are changed to parentheses as follows:. When cited within parentheses, both the name of the country or state and the word "Constitution" should be abbreviated, as in the following examples:. When constitutional citations appear in running text, either abbreviations or full names may be used. Some suggested forms are as follows:. Madison, Federalist No. Treaties signed before are contained in and cited to the United States Statutes at Large.
Some electronic sources do not contain pagination; therefore, page references are not required when citing those sources. Use of the full names of authors is preferred, except for certain treatises noted in section 7. Titles of legal periodicals, treatises and other works and documents are set in roman.
A website itself or specific content on a website may be cited. If an Internet document or page is no longer available at the original URL, but has been preserved through caching, cite as follows:. For citations to weblogs blogs , follow the general citation style above, including the author's name, the name of the weblog, the title of the article or entry, the URL and the date of the posting, as follows:.
Trevor W. John C. Joseph T. Daniel J. Virginia R. Gail E. Brian L. Both "Note" or "Comment" and the author's name are used in a law review citation, as follows:. Charles T. Chadbourn rev ]. Alan D. Wendell ed ]. Where the title of a legal treatise begins with language such as "Law of," "Handbook on" or "A Treatise on," that prefatory material is omitted from the citation title. Ann K. Marjorie A. An author's name should be used in the citation if provided. Otherwise, cite as follows:.
National Arbitration Forum Code of Procedure rule 5. Michael D. Cite an e-book as in the example below. Typically, the parties in an action are referred to, at the trial level, as Plaintiff and Defendant in the event of impleader one might find Third-Party or Fourth-Party Plaintiffs and Defendants ; in a proceeding the parties are referred to as Petitioner and Respondent.
On the appellate level, parties are referred to according to their status on appeal, e. Generally, where there is more than one party sharing the same status i. If a party is sued or suing in a representative or official capacity, that capacity should be set forth in the title.
Kathleen M. Use the firm or legal organization name and individual names of appearing attorneys, unless only the firm or legal organization name s or attorney s name s is available. The following examples are illustrative:.
Hong Jang Tsai , pro se, and Stanley H. Nancy Boochever , Yonkers, respondent pro se, and for Eugene A. John Gerdes , Troy, pro se, and Jose A. Thomas Harold Matters , White Plains, for respondents appearing specially. Use the name and title of the following officials with name of counsel but not counsel's title within parentheses :.
Eric T. Barbara H. Full names of specific government bodies and officials are capitalized. Short-form references also are capitalized:. General references to government bodies and officials should not be capitalized:. The full names of states and their political subdivisions should be capitalized:. The word "state" standing alone should be capitalized only when the word it modifies is capitalized, when referring to a state as a party or when referring to a state acting in its governmental capacity.
For example:. Capitalize the following when part of a personal name or when used as a short-form reference to a specific individual:. When multiple constitutional clauses are discussed, the word "Clauses" is capitalized: Takings and Due Process Clauses.
Capitalize constitution when referring to the specific constitution of any nation or state, but lowercase it as a general term. Capitalize amendments to the constitution when referred to by number, such as the Fifteenth Amendment. Lowercase complaint, answer, bill of particulars, interrogatories, separation agreement, opinion, qualified domestic relations order, temporary restraining order, will, trust and similar terms.
Lowercase references to numbered items, such as indictments, interrogatories, apartments, indexes, etc. In general, numbers up to and including nine should be spelled out and numbers above nine should be denoted by figures. Fractions accompanied by whole numbers should appear in numerical form as follows:.
Retain roman numerals that are used in articles of federal and state constitutions and statutes, proper names, names of events and otherwise in accordance with standard authorities. For determinate term sentences, apply the rule in section Reference to specific types of firearms should appear in the form that follows:. Reference to sex offender risk levels, prison disciplinary hearings, attorney disciplinary charges and state retirement tiers should appear as follows:. When using numbers to identify items in a list that is interwoven in a sentence, place the numbers within parentheses.
Two principal issues were addressed: 1 whether section was inconsistent with state law; and 2 whether parts of the subject code were inconsistent. Three officers comprised the board: president vice-president secretary-treasurer. All the months of the year, with the exception of May, June and July, should be abbreviated when used in parentheses or in footnote citations: Sept.
The name of the judge in running text may, but need not, include the full name:. The decision of Mr. Chief Judge L ippman ; S tark , J. Use the style of personal names as given in the record or briefs. Unless it is the first word of a sentence, do not capitalize the word "the," even if it is part of the name of an entity:. Quotations should be verbatim as to word style, citation style and punctuation.
Commas and periods are placed within the ending quotation mark; colons and semicolons are placed outside. An ellipsis is three points, with spaces before each and after the third.
Use an ellipsis followed by a period to indicate one or more words omitted at the end of a quoted sentence if the quoted portion that remains is an independent clause last quoted word.
Indicate an omission between quoted sentences as follows if retention of the period is desired:. If the end of the preceding sentence is omitted, insert an ellipsis followed by a period last quoted word of preceding sentence. Include other punctuation comma, semicolon, etc. Use brackets to indicate that language has been added or modified, including the omission or alteration of one or more characters of a word.
When the quoted material contains mistakes that the author does not wish to correct by substituting bracketed language, the author may indicate that the mistake appeared in the original by inserting "[sic]" after the mistaken language. Although some material in statutes and regulations is boldfaced, quotations of that material should be in normal type. Single-paragraph quotations have quotation marks at the beginning and the end of the quoted language.
Multiple-paragraph quotations have quotation marks only at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph. If the quotation contains language that is already quoted a quotation within a quotation , the previously quoted language may be enclosed within single quotation marks '. To shorten a name, do not use quotation marks within parentheses, e.
Use inclusive terms, rather than masculine or feminine forms. Use Avoid administrator administratrix a one-person operation a one-man operation artificial man-made Assembly Member; Member of the Assembly Assemblyman battered syndrome or battered person syndrome battered woman syndrome businessperson; executive businessman chair; chairperson chairman colleagues brethren diplomacy statesmanship drafter draftsman executor executrix firefighter fireman presiding juror; foreperson foreman supervisor [employment context] foreman high ranking officials men in high places homemaker housewife journalists gentlemen of the press Member of Congress; Representative Congressman members of the jury gentlemen of the jury nurse male nurse police officer policeman reasonable person reasonable man representative spokesman staff manpower worker workman.
Avoid using "he" or "she" as a generic pronoun. Instead you might:. Compound words may be open separate words, no hyphen , closed spelled as one word or hyphenated. Hyphenate an adjectival phrase formed of two or more words preceding the noun modified only where ambiguity might otherwise result. The use of Latin and other foreign language words and phrases generally is discouraged where an English language equivalent is available.
For example, consider these substitutes:. The use of Latin and other foreign words and phrases is appropriate where the word or phrase has become part of standard English or is a legal term of art. Privacy interests of individuals should be protected by omitting irrelevant references to personal identifying information and redacting necessary references. Does Zotero include all the necessary changes? You can save and download your entire reference list in this tool, and you can also easily switch between the 6th and 7th edition formats.
When I report secondary citations inside the text, should I mention the year for the original source? You should include the year of the original source as well. For example: Smith, , as cited in Jones, However, make sure that it will be accessible to your reader for example, don't use a URL that requires a database login.
Many databases provide a stable URL for journal articles. If the heading of a section is at the bottom of a page do I leave it there, or move it to the top of the next page? According to APA style, you shouldn't add any blank lines above or below your headings, so you should leave it at the bottom of the page.
See this blog for further information on headings. Hope that helps! None of the examples in the video use a hanging indent. Have you removed it from the format, or is this an error in the video? You should still use a hanging indent when formatting your reference list. Since the examples in the video aimed to show the content of source citations rather than the format of the reference page, we didn't apply the hanging indent here.
Apologies for any confusion! Please help me solving a big doubt. Or how should I proceed? I tried to mix British English spelling and American-style punctuation in accordance with APA style, but it's just so many rules. It's best to check with your instructor or the journal you're submitting to on this point. British English tends to be somewhat more flexible, so it may be acceptable to use American-style punctuation along with British spellings. It now contains only a page number and the shortened paper title.
The example shown in APA 7 for a professional paper does show a shortened paper title as the running head of all pages. It may be that you were looking at the example for a student paper, where this is indeed not included. In terms of other changes, this article only aims to cover the most significant ones. Other details of the title page format can be found in our article on this topic. The APA 7th edition recommends using first person pronouns "I" when referring to your own actions and reflections.
This is because writing in the third person "the author" can create ambiguity in your writing. Can I just clarify this is still correct. Intext Brown suggest Or At the end ofa sentence Mims Yes, the placement of in-text citations has not changed.
Rules for Writers succeeds because it has always been grounded in classroom experience. The hand-edited sentences, corner tabs, clean and uncluttered design, color-coded documentation sections, exercises with answers in the back, and student-friendly index terms help students to find—and understand—the information they need to solve writing problems in any college course.
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The book is well written and you will enjoy reading it. Below are some topics covered in this book. Keywords: hacking books ethical hacking books best hacking books ethical hacking pdf hacking pdf. What argument is it making? How to read charts and graphs. A line graph, for example, usually contains certain elements: title, legend, x-axis, y-axis, and source information. Figure 1 shows one such graph taken from a sociology textbook.
Other types of charts and graphs include some of these same elements. But the specific elements vary according to the different Legend: Explains the symbols used. Here, colors show the different categories. X-axis: Defines the dependent variable something that changes depending on other factors. Women in the labor force as a percent of the total labor force both men and women age sixteen and over. For example, the chart in Figure 2, from the same textbook, includes elements of both bar and line graphs to depict two trends at once: the red line shows the percentage of women who were in the US labor force from to , and the blue bars show the percentage of US workers who were women during that same period.
Both trends are shown in two-year increments. To make sense of this chart, you need to read the title, the y-axis labels, and the labels and their definitions carefully. Research Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. We search the web for information about a new computer, ask friends about the best place to get coffee, try on several pairs of jeans before deciding which ones to buy.
Will you need to provide background information? What kinds of evidence will your audience find persuasive? What attitudes do they hold, and how can you best appeal to them?
If so, which media will best reach your audience, and how will they affect the kind of information you search for? Is there a due date? How much time will your project take, and how can you best schedule your time in order to complete it? If the assignment offers only broad guidelines, identify the requirements and range of possibilities, and define your topic within those constraints.
As you consider topics, look to narrow your focus to be specific enough to cover in a research paper. Reference librarians can direct you to the most appropriate reference works, and library catalogs and databases provide sources that have been selected by experts. General encyclopedias and other reference works can provide an overview of your topic, while more specialized encyclopedias cover subjects in greater depth and provide other scholarly references for further research.
Some databases include documentation entries in several styles that you can simply copy and paste. Generate a list of questions beginning with What? Who should determine when and where fracking can be done? Should fracking be expanded? Select one question, and use it to help guide your research.
Drafting a tentative thesis. Here are three tentative thesis statements, each one based on a previous research question about fracking: By injecting sand, water, and chemicals into rock, fracking may pollute drinking water and air. The federal government should strictly regulate the production of natural gas by fracking.
Fracking can greatly increase our supplies of natural gas, but other methods of producing energy should still be pursued. A tentative thesis will help guide your research, but you should be ready to revise it as you continue to learn about your subject and consider many points of view.
Which sources you turn to will depend on your topic. For a report on career opportunities in psychology, you might interview someone working in the field.
Primary sources are original works, such as historical documents, literary works, eyewitness accounts, diaries, letters, and lab studies, as well as your own original field research. Secondary sources include scholarly books and articles, reviews, biographies, and other works that interpret or discuss primary sources. Whether a source is considered primary or secondary sometimes depends on your topic and purpose.
Scholarly and popular sources. Popular sources, on the other hand, are written for a general audience, and while they may discuss scholarly research, they are more likely to summarize that research than to report on it in detail.
Catchy, provocative titles usually signal that a source is popular, not scholarly. Scholarly sources are written by authors with academic credentials; popular sources are most often written by journalists or staff writers.
Includes an abstract. Multiple authors who are academics. Author not an academic. Consider how much prior knowledge readers are assumed to have. Are specialized terms defined, and are the people cited identified in some way?
Look as well at the detail: scholarly sources describe methods and give more detail, often in the form of numerical data; popular sources give less detail, often in the form of anecdotes. Scholarly sources are published by academic journals, university presses, and professional organizations such as the Modern Language Association; popular sources are published by general interest magazines such as Time or Fortune or trade publishers such as Norton or Penguin.
Scholarly journal articles often begin with an abstract or summary of the article; popular magazine articles may include a tag line giving some sense of what the article covers, but less than a formal summary. Scholarly sources have URLs that end in. Keep in mind that searching requires flexibility, both in the words you use and in the methods you try. For some topics, you might find specialized reference works such as the Film Encyclopedia or Dictionary of Philosophy, which provide in-depth information on a single field or topic and can often lead you to more specific sources.
Many reference works are also online, but some may be available only in the library. Wikipedia can often serve as a starting point for preliminary research and includes links to other sources, but since its information can be written and rewritten by anyone, make sure to consult other reference works as well. You can find bibliographies in many scholarly articles and books.
Check with a reference librarian for help finding bibliographies on your research topic. You can search the catalog by author, title, subject, or keyword. Many books in the catalog are also available online, and some may be downloaded to a computer or mobile device.
Indexes list articles by topics; databases usually provide full texts or abstracts. While some databases and indexes are freely available online, most must be accessed through a library. EBSCOhost provides databases of abstracts and complete articles from periodicals and government documents. InfoTrac offers full-text articles from scholarly and popular sources, including the New York Times.
JSTOR archives many scholarly journals but not current issues. Humanities International Index contains bibliographies for over 2, humanities journals. MLA International Bibliography indexes scholarly articles on modern languages, literature, folklore, and linguistics. PsycINFO indexes scholarly literature in psychology. Because it is so vast and dynamic, however, finding information can be a challenge.
Google, Bing, Yahoo! Yippy, Dogpile, and SurfWax let you use several search sites simultaneously. They are best for searching broadly; use a single site to obtain the most precise results. For peer-reviewed academic writing in many disciplines, try Google Scholar; or use Scirus for scientific, technical, and medical documents. Following are a few of the many resources available on the web. You can find information put together by specialists at The Voice of the Shuttle a guide to online resources in the humanities ; the WWW Virtual Library a catalog of websites on numerous subjects, compiled by subject specialists ; or in subject directories such as those provided by Google and Yahoo!
News sites. Many newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV stations have websites that provide both up-to-the-minute information and also archives of older news articles. Through Google News and NewsLink, for example, you can access current news worldwide, and Google News Archive Search has files extending back to the s. Government sites. Many government agencies and departments maintain websites where you can find government reports, statistics, legislative information, and other resources.
Audio, video, and image collections. Your library likely subscribes to various databases where you can find and download audio, video, and image files. AP Images provides access to photographs taken for the Associated Press; Artstor is a digital library of images; Naxos Music Library contains more than 60, recordings.
Digital archives. You can find primary sources from the past, including drawings, maps, recordings, speeches, and historic documents at sites maintained by the National Archives, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, and others. Three kinds of field research that you might consider are interviews, observations, and surveys. If you wish to record the interview, ask for permission.
Some writing projects are based on information you get by observing something. How does this observation relate to your research goals, and what do you expect to find?
Also note details about the setting. Then analyze your notes, looking for patterns. What did you learn? Did anything surprise or puzzle you? One way of gathering information from a large number of people is to use a questionnaire. Multiple-choice questions will be easier to tally than openended questions. Be sure to give a due date and to say thank you. A Google search on the same topic produces over ten thousand hits.
How do you decide which ones to read? This chapter presents advice on evaluating potential sources and reading those you choose critically. What kinds of sources will they find persuasive?
How well does it relate to your purpose? What would it add to your work? To see what it covers, look at the title and at any introductory material such as a preface or an abstract. Has the author written other works on this subject? Is he or she known for a particular position on it? If the credentials are not stated, you might do a search to see what else you can learn about him or her.
Does the source cover various points of view or advocate only one perspective? Does its title suggest a certain slant? If the source is a book, what kind of company published it; if an article, what kind of periodical did it appear in? Books published by university presses and articles in scholarly journals are reviewed by experts before they are published.
But books and articles written for the general public do not undergo rigorous review or fact-checking. Is the site maintained by an organization, an interest group, a government agency, or an individual? Look for clues in the URL:.
Can you understand it? Texts written for a general audience might be easier to understand but not authoritative enough for academic work. Scholarly texts will be more authoritative but may be hard to comprehend.
Check to see when books and articles were published and when websites were last updated. If a site lists no date, see if links to other sites still work; if not, the site is probably too dated to use. If so, you can probably assume that some other writers regard it as trustworthy. Is there a bibliography that might lead you to other sources? How current or authoritative are the sources it cites? Pay attention to what they say, to the reasons and evidence they offer to support what they say, and to whether they address viewpoints other than their own.
Assume that each author is responding to some other argument. Does he or she present several different positions or argue for a particular position? What arguments is he or she responding to? How thoroughly does he or she consider alternative arguments? Does it seem objective, or does the content or language reveal a particular bias? Are opposing views considered and treated fairly?
Does it support a different argument altogether? Does it represent a position you need to address? Is the main purpose to inform readers about a topic or to argue a certain point? This chapter focuses on going beyond what your sources say to inspire and support what you want to say. What makes them so strong? Are there any that you need to address in what you write? Have you discovered new questions you need to investigate?
Entering the conversation. This is the exciting part of a research project, for when you write out your own ideas on the topic, you will find yourself entering that conversation.
This chapter will help you with the specifics of integrating source materials into your writing and acknowledging your sources appropriately. The following examples are shown in MLA style. To quote three lines or less of poetry in MLA style, run them in with your text, enclosed in quotation marks. Separate lines with slashes, leaving one space on each side of the slash.
Include the line numbers in parentheses at the end of the quotation. Set off long quotations block style. Longer quotations should not be run in with quotation marks but instead are set off from your text and indented from the left margin.
What better way to get our attention? The solution for most nonprofits has been to show the despair. Indicate any additions or changes with brackets.
Paraphrase when the source material is important but the original wording is not. Because it includes all the main points and details of the source material, a paraphrase is usually about the same length as the original. These results helped explain why bladder cancers had become so prevalent among dyestuffs workers. With the invention of mauve in , synthetic dyes began replacing natural plant-based dyes in the coloring of cloth and leather.
After mauve, the first synthetic dye, was invented in , leather and cloth manufacturers replaced most natural dyes made from plants with synthetic dyes, and by the early s textile workers had very high rates of bladder cancer. The experiments with dogs revealed the connection Now see two examples that demonstrate some of the challenges of paraphrasing. The paraphrase below borrows too much of the original language or changes it only slightly, as the words and phrases highlighted in yellow show.
Now-classic experiments in showed that when dogs were exposed to aromatic amines, chemicals used in synthetic dyes derived from coal, they developed bladder cancer. Similar cancers were prevalent among dyestuffs workers, and these experiments helped to explain why.
Mauve, a synthetic dye, was invented in , after which cloth and leather manufacturers replaced most of the natural plant-based dyes with synthetic dyes.
These results helped researchers identify why cancers of the bladder had become so common among textile workers who worked with dyes. With the development of mauve in , synthetic dyes began to be used instead of dyes based on plants in the dyeing of leather and cloth. By the end of the nineteenth century, rates of bladder cancer among these workers had increased dramatically, and the experiments using dogs helped clear up this oddity Steingraber One common mistake many writers make is to start by copying a passage directly from a source and then changing it: adding some words or deleting some words, replacing others with synonyms, altering sentence structures.
Use your own words and sentence structure. If you use any words from the original, put them in quotation marks. Unlike a paraphrase, a summary does not present the details, and it is generally as brief as possible. Summaries may boil down an entire book or essay into a single sentence, or they may take a paragraph or more to present the main ideas.
Here, for example, is a summary of the original excerpt from Steingraber see p. Signal verbs. The language you use in a signal phrase can be neutral, like X says or according to Y.
The example above referring to the textbook author uses the verb argues, suggesting that what she says is disputable or that the writer believes it is. Science writer Isaac McDougal questions whether. For example: In other words, the data suggest that.
Our theory challenges common assumptions about. Their hypothesis supposes. Verb tenses. Each documentation style has its own conventions regarding the verbs that are used in signal phrases.
If, however, you mention the date when the source was written, the verb should be in the past tense. Dowdall, Crawford, and Wechsler have observed that. But to discuss the implications of an experiment or conclusions that are generally agreed on, APA requires the use of the present tense: the findings of the study suggest, most researchers concur.
Use the past tense, however, when you are focusing on the fact that the action took place in the past: Just before signing the Declaration of Independence, John Adams wrote to his wife. Use the present tense, however, when citing research reports: Gillen provides the most detailed evidence.
Statistics and facts. Most of the time, it will be clear that you are documenting only the statistic or fact. When in doubt, provide documentation or ask your instructor for advice.
The following practices will help you avoid plagiarizing. Like other sources, information from the web must be acknowledged. Students who plagiarize fail courses or might even be expelled from school. Documenting our sources not only helps establish our credibility as researchers and writers, but it also enables our readers to find our sources themselves if they wish to.
The Little Seagull Handbook provides guidelines on four documentation styles, each of which is commonly used in specific disciplines. Although the specific guidelines for the styles differ, they all require that you provide basic information about the authors, titles, and publication of your sources.
MLA Style MLA style calls for 1 brief in-text documentation and 2 complete bibliographic information in a list of works cited at the end of your text. The models and examples in this chapter draw on the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook, published by the Modern Language Association in For additional information, visit style. You have three options for citing a source in your text: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.
Variations on those examples follow. The examples illustrate the MLA style of using quotation marks around titles of short works and italicizing titles of long works. Do not write page or p. Do not use punctuation between the name and the page number s.
Notice that in the example above, the parenthetical reference comes after the closing quotation marks but before the period at the end of the sentence.
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